One Year Mission on the Space Station Set for 2015

American Astronaut Scott Kelly Image Credit: NASA

Russian Cosmonaut Mikhail Kornienko Image Credit: NASA

NASA announced on Monday 26 November 2012, that American astronaut Scott Kelly and Russian cosmonaut Mikhail Kornienko have been selected by NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), and their international partners to conduct a 12 month mission aboard the International Space Station (ISS) in 2015. The mission aboard the orbiting laboratory is designed to further our understanding of how the human body reacts and adapts to microgravity and other aspects of living in space. Work over the past several years have shown marked improvement in the ability for astronauts on a normal 5-6 month mission aboard the ISS to adapt to microgravity. The year long mission seeks to validate these findings. Long duration missions to the Moon, Lagrange points, asteroids and Mars will require countermeasures to reduce risks associated with future exploration. Kelly and Kornienko are veterans of space travel. Kelly served as a pilot on space shuttle mission STS-103 in 1999, commander on STS-118 in 2007, flight engineer on the International Space Station Expedition 25 in 2010 and commander of Expedition 26 in 2011. Kelly has logged more than 180 days in space. Kornienko was selected as an Energia test cosmonaut candidate in 1998 and trained as an International Space Station Expedition 8 backup crew member. He served as a flight engineer on the station’s Expedition 23/24 crews in 2010 and has logged more than 176 days in space. The two astronauts will launch aboard a Soyuz spacecraft in the Spring of 2015 and return to land in Kazakhstan in the Spring of 2016.

NASA – ISS Science Success – Part III

Part I, Part II, Part III

International Space Station. Credit: NASA Image

In Part I, we looked at “Technology Development for Exploration” and “Physical Sciences in Microgravity” aboard the International Space Station from NASA’s report on “International Space Station Science Research Accomplishments During the Assembly Years: An Analysis of Results from 2000-2008”. In Part II, we reviewed “Biological Sciences in Microgravity” and the “Human Research Program”. The major areas of research from the report include: Technology Development for Exploration Physical Sciences in Microgravity Biological Sciences in Microgravity Human Research Program Observing the Earth and Educational Activities Science from International Space Station Observations Here in Part III, we will highlight the final two sections: “Observing the Earth and Educational Activities” and “Science from International Space Station Observations”.

Observing the Earth and Educational Activities

Amateur Radio on the International Space Station. From p 161: Ever since the Amateur Radio on the International Space Station (ARISS) hardware was first launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-106 and transferred to ISS, it has been regularly used education outreach. With the help of Amateur Radio Clubs and HAM radio operators, astronauts and cosmonauts aboard the ISS have been speaking directly with large groups of the general public, showing teachers, students, parents, and communities how amateur radio energizes students about science, technology, and learning. The overall goal of ARISS is to get students interested in mathematics and science by allowing them to talk directly with the crews who are living and working aboard the ISS. You can follow Amateur Radio here.

Credit: NASA. Astronaut Sunita L. Williams, Expeditions 14 and 15 flight engineer, talks with students at the International School of Brussels in Belgium during an ARISS session in the Zvezda service module.

Crew Earth Observations

Although crew observations of the Earth sometimes lack the precision and scientific value of dedicated spacecraft orbiting the Earth, crew photographs and observations continue to fascinate the public and benefit science. The ability of crew aboard the ISS to react immediately to targets of opportunity means that events such as the 2004 tsunami in Indonesia, the hurricanes Katrina and Wilma and the Mt Etna eruptions can be documented in real time, directed by scientists on the ground.

Through December 2007, more than 300,000 images of the Earth have been taken. Scientists and the public around the world have access to CEO images that were captured by astronauts on ISS through the Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth Web site (http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov).

As an example of published research involving the coordination of ISS images with other spacecraft platforms, the report states:

Extracting clear water depths from a variety of sources allows the examination and mapping of shallow water from global to local scales. Scientists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) used four sources of data to map shallow water bathymetry near U.S. coral reef areas. These included the sea-viewing wide field-of-view sensor (SeaWiFS) on board the OrbView 2 Satellite (SeaWiFS allows global mapping within 1-kilometer pixels), the IKONOS satellite (global mapping within 4 meters), the Landsat Satellite (global mapping within 30 meter pixels), and handheld photography by the ISS crew (CEO local mapping within 6 meters). A new technique was applied to the blue and green bands from astronaut photography, allowing construction of a bathymetry map for Pearl and Hermes reef with accuracies similar to that obtained from IKONOS (Stumpf et al. 2003).

Image Credit: NASA – iss013e24184

As an example of initial discovery capability aboard the ISS, “flight engineer Jeff Williams was the first to report the volcanic eruption of Cleveland Volcano in Alaska on May 23, 2006. This image shows the eruption cloud moving west-southwest from the volcano summit. The Alaska Volcano Observatory was contacted and was able to monitor the volcanic activity. This image was captured using the Kodak 760c camera equipped with a 800mm lens”.

The tracking system for images like these were pioneered by ISS Expedition 6 science officer Don Pettit using a homemade tracking system to track the ground as it moves relative to station. Pettit runs a drill while looking through EarthKAM mounted on the nadir window in the U.S. Destiny laboratory. The device is called a “barn door tracker.” The drill turns the screw, which moves the camera and its spotting scope.

Image Credit: NASA – ISS006E44305

Additional examples of ISS observations and experiments involving student education work include:

• “The Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus Science Insert-01 (CSI-01) was the first in a series of experiments for the K–12 education program from BioServe Space Technologies at the University of Colorado-Boulder. This C. elegans experiment involved over 5,000 middle school students (grades 6 – 9) who were located in Texas, Arizona, Michigan, Florida, California, New Mexico, Wisconsin, and Montana, as well as several thousand students from Malaysia. The C. elegans experiment was part of the Orion’s Quest education program (http://www.orionsquest.org/); video of the worms are available on the Web site”. (p 169).
• “CSI-02 is an educational payload that is designed to interest middle school students in STEM by providing the opportunity for these students to participate in near-real-time research conducted on board the ISS. Each experiment was designed to be easily reproducible in the classroom, providing hands-on experience to the students. The seed germination and plant development experiment provided the opportunity for younger students to begin to understand how gravity affects germination and plant development. Small seeds were germinated on orbit in BioServe-developed hardware. The students examined root and stem growth and plant development over a period ranging from a few weeks to 2 months. Classroom kits were available from BioServe for teachers”. (p 171)
• “The objective of the Education Payload Operations (EPO) investigation was to use toys, tools, and other common items in the microgravity environment of ISS to create educational video and multimedia products that inspire the next generation of engineers, mathematicians, physicists, and other scientists. To date, over 500 videos, DVDs, and video clips have been produced and distributed to science teachers and schools throughout the United States”. (p 173)
• During the Education-Space-Exposed Experiment Development for Students (SEEDS) experiment, eight pouches of soybean and corn seeds flew on ISS and germinated under either dark or lighted conditions. (p 179)

Science from International Space Station Observations

Finally, some additional interesting studies:

• Clinical Nutrition Assessment. Publications from this robust project:
  • Hall PS. Past and Current Practice in Space Nutrition, in P Cavanagh and AJ Rice (eds.), Bone Loss During Spaceflight: Etiology, Countermeasures, and Implications for Bone Health on Earth. Cleveland Clinic Press, Cleveland, Ohio (2007), pp. 125–132.
  • Smith S, Zwart SR, Block G, Rice BL, Davis-Street JE. The nutritional status of astronauts is altered after long-term space flight aboard the International Space Station. Journal of Nutrition. 2005; 135(3):437–443.
  • Smith S, Zwart, SR, Block G, Rice BL, Davis-Street JE. The Nutritional Status of Astronauts is Altered After Long-Term Space Flight Aboard the International Space Station, in P Cavanagh and AJ Rice (eds.), Bone Loss During Spaceflight: Etiology, Countermeasures, and Implications for Bone Health on Earth. Cleveland Clinic Press, Cleveland, Ohio (2007), pp. 133–147.
  • 79BSmith SM, Zwart SR. Nutrition issues for space exploration. Acta Astronautica. 2008; 63:609–613.
• The plasma interaction model (PIM) collected measurements of the ionospheric plasma around the ISS using the floating potential probe (FPP), which was mounted outside on an ISS truss until it was jettisoned in late 2005. (p 193)
• Soldering in Reduced Gravity Experiment (SoRGE). (p. 196)
• Exploration Lessons Learned from the Operation of ISS. This is left to the reader, as a summary of “non-eigenaxis attitude trajectory” is not possible within the space available. Read pp 197-198 and referenced publications.
• Medical Monitoring of ISS Crewmembers, Exploration Lessons Learned from the Operation of ISS. Several papers have been published reporting the engineering and operational ramifications resulting from the data that were collected from the ISS space environment. The results fall into a couple of broad categories (p. 199):
  • Radiation environmental effects on ISS
  • External contamination of ISS
  • Other environmental assessments, including thruster plume contamination and condensate venting

The report is a great read, full of interesting, odd and bizarre research projects. A lot of the work depends on the ISS. And the expansion to a full six crew members makes future research a lot more feasible. Now that we have it, lets see what the International Space Station can do for human space flight research.

Part I, Part II, Part III

NASA – ISS Science Success – Part II

Part I, Part II, Part III

In Part I, we looked at “Technology Development for Exploration” and “Physical Sciences in Microgravity” aboard the International Space Station from NASA’s report on “International Space Station Science Research Accomplishments During the Assembly Years: An Analysis of Results from 2000-2008”. The major areas of research from the report include: Technology Development for Exploration Physical Sciences in Microgravity Biological Sciences in Microgravity Human Research Program Observing the Earth and Educational Activities Science from International Space Station Observations Here in Part II, we will highlight research from “Biological Sciences in Microgravity” and “Human Research Program”.

International Space Station. Credit: NASA Image

Biological Sciences in Microgravity

For long term human occupation of the Solar System, production of food and reproduction in microgravity are key research arenas.

Thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana) is a model system in plant biology studies and has been studied aboard the ISS in a series of tests over three Expeditions (2, 4, and 5). The studies used the Advanced Astroculture apparatus, a commercially sponsored payload that “provided precise control of environmental parameters for plant growth, including temperature, relative humidity, light, fluid nutrient delivery, and CO2 and ethylene concentrations” (p 83).

Results included successful germination, growth to maturity and production of seeds. Both plant and seed tended to be slightly bigger than ground results. Seed germination rates were similar to ground germination, and no major morphological differences were noted. Additional results have not been released.

The Avian Development Facility (ADF) is designed to study embryogenesis in microgravity (the ADF can carry bird eggs, fish, plants, insects, or cells in its sample containers.). “During its flight on space shuttle mission STS-108 to the ISS, the ADF housed two investigations: the Development and Function of the Avian Otolith System in Normal and Altered Gravity Environments (ADF-Otolith) and the Skeletal Development in Embryonic Quail on the ISS (ADF-Skeletal) investigations” (p 81). It has been suggested that absence of gravity can affect embryo development. Changes in inner ear development has been observed before, and the Otolith experiments showed that inner ear bones from quail embryos are larger than those found in controls on Earth. Additional analysis is being conducted. Below are images from the experiment showing differential development.

Credit: NASA Image.

The ADF-Skeletal experiments were designed to begin determining the molecular and cellular biology of bone formation and loss.

Osteocalcin levels in the day 12 embryos showed no effect from space flight. However, day 7 and day 12 embryos direct mineralization quantitative studies have not been reported. Second, space flight embryos had a reduced level of collagen-synthesizing activity compared to the ground control specimens. Final analyses and publication of results are pending.

Other Biological experiments include:

• Biomass Production System – “Multiple criteria were used to evaluate BPS technology; nearly all of the performance requirements (plant health, temperature and humidity control, atmospheric composition control, nutrient and water delivery, lighting, data acquisition of CO2 levels, water use, biofouling) were met successfully (Iverson et al. 2003). While researchers noted a few performance parameters required additional work (e.g., elevated temperatures of the root zones), these indicators were identified and documented, and will be built in to the design modification. Overall the BPS hardware performed as expected, and may provide a viable use in the development for regenerative life support systems for future spacecraft development.” (p 85)
• Cellular Biotechnology Operations Support System. CBOSS is intended to grow three-dimensional clusters of cells in microgravity. Cell lines in the experiments included: Renal Cortical Cells, for study of Kidney disorders; Colin Carcinoma Cells, testing three-dimensional growth in microgravity affecting signaling pathways and gene expression as cells differentiate into the two major colonic cell lines; Ovarian Tumor Cells, involved three-dimensional development and associated cell cycle kinetics, proteins and oncoproteins; three additional cell lines were studied. Significant problems with preservation and air/liquid interface bubbles were encountered. (p 90-92)
• Effect of Space Flight on Microbial Gene Expression and Virulence (Microbe). The Microbe experiment was performed in Sep 2006 during the STS-115/12A mission to the ISS; it tested three microbial pathogens; Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans. Initial data from S. typhimurium showed that a total of 167 genes were expressed differently in flight when compared with ground controls. The data indicate that bacteria respond to the microgravity environment with widespread alterations of gene expression (process by which DNA is made into a protein), alterations in microbial morphology (shape and form of microbes), and increased virulence (disease-causing potential) (p 97-98)
• Multigenerational Studies of Thale Cress. Samples were returned to Earth for analysis by the investigator team in Apr 2008. Final results of the investigation are pending data analysis of the returned samples. (p 99)

Human Research Program

Areas under investigation include:

• Bone and Muscle
• Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems
• Immune, Neurological, and Vestibular Systems
• Behavior and Performance Studies
• Radiation Studies

The Anomalous Longterm Effects in Astronauts’ Central Nervous System (ALTEA) hardware is designed to measure particle radiation in the space environment, and determine how this radiation impacts the CNS of the crew. “Preliminary data that were compiled from three Expeditions, are currently in being fully analyzed. A long run of dosimetry data was collected during Expeditions 13 and 14; including definable particle and solar events. During Expedition 13, the visual stimulator malfunctioned, resulting in a loss of data from this instrument. During Expedition 14, variable results were obtained from different crewmembers. Overall, the crew reported a lower frequency of light flash events than expected; this was anecdotally attributed to a lack of dark adaptation. The astronauts did perceive a higher rate of light flashes in their sleeping quarters.” (p 115)

The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND), which was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), was used inside the ISS to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 mega electron volts (MeV). (p 116)

Effect of Prolonged Space Flight on Human Skeletal Muscle. Muscle biopsy evaluated changes in calf muscle function over long-duration space flights (30 to 180 days). “Preliminary results were presented at the 2004 American Physiological Society Intersociety Meeting: Integrative Biology of Exercise in three abstracts. Summarizing data that were collected from the first five subjects, microgravity produced a 47% decrease in the peak power of postflight muscle fiber samples compared to preflight muscle fiber samples. This decrease was due to the combined effects of reduced fiber size and a decline in the size of the myofibrils that make up the fiber”. (p 118)

Commercial Biomedical Test Module-2 (CBTM-2) examined the effectiveness of an experimental therapeutic in preventing muscle loss in mice that were exposed to microgravity. This was the first time that an experimental therapeutic for muscle loss was investigated in space; an important and significant step in developing a more effective countermeasure to microgravity induced muscle changes. (p 122)

Other human space flight related studies include:

• Space Flight Induced Reactivation of Latent Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV). “The decreased cellular immune function that is experienced by astronauts in space flight is likely caused by a combination of the microgravity environment and the stresses that are associated with a mission. With longer-duration missions, it is hypothesized that latent viruses are more likely to be reactivated, placing the crew at risk of developing and spreading infectious illnesses and jeopardizing the mission. Preliminary studies of astronauts have shown increased EBV shedding”. (p130)
• Effects of Altered Gravity on Spinal Cord Excitability. (p 135)
• Behavioral Issues Associated with Isolation and Confinement. (p 140)
• Incidence of Latent Virus Shedding During Space Flight. “The observed decrements in the immune response resulting from space flight may allow increased reactivation of the same herpes viruses, and may increase the incidence and duration of viral shedding. Such a result may increase the concentration of herpes viruses in the spacecraft.” (p 141)
• Renal Stone Risk During Space Flight.(p 149)
• Stability of Pharmacotherapeutic and Nutritional Compounds. Pharmaceuticals have been observed to degrade in microgravity in as short a period as 20 days. (p 152)
• Subregional Assessment of Bone Loss in the Axial Skeleton in Long Term Space Flight. (p 154)
• Surface, Water, and Air Biocharacterization (SWAB) – A Comprehensive Characterization
  of Microorganisms and Allergen in Spacecraft. (p 156)
• Effect of Microgravity on the Peripheral Subcutaneous Veno-Arteriolar Reflex in Humans. (p 159)

Part I, Part II, Part III

NASA – ISS Science Success – Part I

Part I, Part II, Part III

International Space Station. Credit: NASA Image

It now appears likely that the mission of the International Space Station (ISS) will be continued through 2020 (See the Augustine Scenarios). And following NASA’s announcement in September of the release of the report on “International Space Station Science Research Accomplishments During the Assembly Years: An Analysis of Results from 2000-2008”, now would be a good time to look back on the scientific accomplishments so far, and to look ahead. Because NASA’s report is 250 pages in length, we will digest it in small pieces. The major areas of research include: Technology Development for Exploration Physical Sciences in Microgravity Biological Sciences in Microgravity Human Research Program Observing the Earth and Educational Activities Science from International Space Station Observations

Following launch of the Russian Zarya module in 1998, and before human occupation began in 2000, several experiments were conducted:

• Protein Crystal Growth – Enhanced Gaseous Nitrogen Dewar (PCG-EGN)
• Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus: Kidney Cell Gene Expression (CGBA-KCGE) and Synaptogenesis in Microgravity (CGBA-SM)
• Incidence of Latent Virus Shedding During Space Flight (Latent Virus)
• International Space Station Acoustics Measurement Program (ISS Acoustics)

One of the most exciting results reported from ISS research is the confirmation that common pathogens change and become more virulent during space flight, performed in September 2006. This has important implications for extended human missions. It is also a target for additional research.

During the time covered by this report, steady growth in publications associated with ISS research has occurred, as shown in the graph to the right. What have been the major research results in each of the six areas discussed in the report? Technology Development for Exploration One of the most important concerns of any space based operation has to be air quality. Therefore, the experiments with the “Analyzing Interferometer for Ambient Air” (ANITA) instrument will prove crucial to future explorers. “ANITA was calibrated to simultaneously monitor 32 gaseous contaminants (including formaldehyde, ammonia, and carbon monoxide (CO)) at low as parts per million levels in the ISS atmosphere. The hardware design—a quasi on-line, fast-time resolution gas analyzer—allowed air quality to be analyzed in near real time.”

Credit: NASA Image

As an example of the importance of these capabilities, the report notes that “ANITA was used in mid 2008 to detect a Freon leak (Khladon 218) from the Russian air conditioner, and to monitor the timeline of Freon concentrations with CDRA operations and shuttle docking. The ANITA data helped to determine that the zeolite bed in the CDRA was not effective in scrubbing the Freon leak, but that diluting the ISS air after the docking with the shuttle substantially reduced the level of Freon” (p18).

Other research topics include:

• The Active Rack Isolation System (ARIS), which protects equipment by absorbing the shock of motion before it can affect an experiment.
• The Smoke and Aerosol Measurement Experiment (SAME), which is planned to gather particulate size information on ISS. It is known that fires in microgravity produce smoke particles that are larger than on Earth. Being able to distinguish between smoke and other particles on ISS is important.
• “The elastic memory composite hinge (EMCH) experiment provided test data on new materials that will further space hardware technology. This technology may eliminate the need for highly complex deployment mechanisms by providing a simpler, lightweight alternative to mechanical hinges. EMCH builds on the previous space shuttle experiment, lightweight flexible solar array hinge (LFSAH) that was flown on STS-93” (p 22).
• “The In-SPACE Soldering Experiment (ISSI) is another payload that was rapidly developed after the Columbia accident to provide a lowmass experiment using hardware already on board station. It was designed to promote understanding of joining techniques, shape equilibrium, wetting phenomena, and micro-structural development in space” (p 23).

Physical Sciences in Microgravity

While Technological Development is important for space exploration, pure research also has a place on the ISS. Protein crystal growth, fluid physics and materials science are being researched:

• The Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility (APCF) can support three crystal-growth methods: liquid-liquid diffusion, vapor diffusion, and dialysis. In the vapor diffusion method, a crystal forms in a protein solution as a precipitant draws moisture in a surrounding reservoir. In the dialysis method, salt draws moisture away from the protein solution via a membrane separating the two and forming crystals. Initial analysis of the crystals that were returned from station supports the findings of earlier APCF flights: comparative crystallographic analysis indicates that space-grown crystals are superior in every way to control-group crystals that are grown on Earth under identical conditions (p 47).
• The Binary Colloidal Alloy Test hardware supported “three investigations in which ISS crews photographed samples of colloidal particles (tiny nanoscale spheres suspended in liquid) to document liquid/gas phase changes, growth of binary crystals, and the formation of colloidal crystals that were confined to a surface. Colloids are small enough that in a microgravity environment without sedimentation and convection, they behave much as atoms. By controlling aspects of colloidal mixtures, they can be used to model all sorts of phenomena” (p 49).
• Protein Crystal Growth-Enhanced Gaseous Nitrogen (PCG-EGN) was designed to produce crystals of various biological compunds. Also, some 500 student preparations were made as part of an education program to teach students about crystallization, crystallography methods and the impact of crystallography on medicine and biotechnology. A significant number of crystallization were successful. Indeed, some of the results produced better data than could be obtained in Earth bound efforts (p 69).

Sometimes, “no” is just as important as “yes”.

Researchers have found that it is possible to grow high-quality protein crystals in the weightlessness of LEO, where gravitational forces will not distort or destroy a crystal’s delicate structure.

The goal of the Dynamically Controlled Protein Crystal Growth (DCPCG) experiment was to control and improve the crystallization process by dynamically controlling the elements that influence crystal growth.

DCPCG was the first flight test of an apparatus that was designed to control the crystal growth process by controlling the rate of evaporation. The apparatus worked on orbit, and crystals were grown for the test proteins; however, the investigators determined that the growth could have been better. The same apparatus was used in extensive testing on the ground. Researchers tested a selection of protein solutions, including insulin (a hormone that is produced by the pancreas to regulate the metabolism and use of sugar), serum albumin, and lysozyme (an enzyme that attacks bacteria) and found that a slower evaporation rate yielded better results than a more rapid evaporation rate. While the results of the ground tests were published, the DCPCG experiment investigators did not seek to publish any structures from crystals grown in orbit.

What’s Ahead

In 2008, the European Space Agency’s (ESA’s) Columbus and Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency’s Kibo scientific modules joining NASA’s Destiny Laboratory. Further, in 2009, the number of crew members increased from three to six. This means that a lot more time is available for research in the future.

New experiments aboard the ISS include a broad range of science, as follows:

• Coordinated human research experiments that collaborate with International Partners’ science objectives and activities, including shared baseline data collection and in-flight sampling, with the goal of understanding integrated causes and effects of changes in the human body.
• Research using new science racks, including the fluids integrated rack (FIR), the combustion integrated rack (CIR), and materials science research rack (MSRR), will enable new experiments exploring combustion, fluid behavior, and heat-dependent crystallization patterns in metal alloys.
• Exploration Technology Development will build from early experiments on materials exposure, smoke generation, liquid fuel management, and environmental monitoring.
• The new Window Observation Research Facility (WORF) will provide capabilities to support remote sensing instruments, enabling Earth Science research that will, for example, document crop health and test the utility of blue-green bands for ocean research.

Part I, Part II, Part III